virtual function specifier

Specifies that a non-static member function is virtual and supports dynamic dispatch. It may only appear in the decl-specifier-seq of the initial declaration of a non-static member function (i.e., when it is declared in the class definition).

[edit] Explanation

Virtual functions are member functions whose behavior can be overridden in derived classes. As opposed to non-virtual functions, the overriding behavior is preserved even if there is no compile-time information about the actual type of the class. That is to say, if a derived class is handled using pointer or reference to the base class, a call to an overridden virtual function would invoke the behavior defined in the derived class. Such a function call is known as virtual function call or virtual call. Virtual function call is suppressed if the function is selected using qualified name lookup (that is, if the function's name appears to the right of the scope resolution operator ::).

#include <iostream>
 
struct Base
{
    virtual void f()
    {
        std::cout << "base\n";
    }
};
 
struct Derived : Base
{
    void f() override // 'override' is optional
    {
        std::cout << "derived\n";
    }
};
 
int main()
{
    Base b;
    Derived d;
 
    // virtual function call through reference
    Base& br = b; // the type of br is Base&
    Base& dr = d; // the type of dr is Base& as well
    br.f(); // prints "base"
    dr.f(); // prints "derived"
 
    // virtual function call through pointer
    Base* bp = &b; // the type of bp is Base*
    Base* dp = &d; // the type of dp is Base* as well
    bp->f(); // prints "base"
    dp->f(); // prints "derived"
 
    // non-virtual function call
    br.Base::f(); // prints "base"
    dr.Base::f(); // prints "base"
}

[edit] In detail

If some member function vf is declared as virtual in a class Base, and some class Derived, which is derived, directly or indirectly, from Base, has a declaration for member function with the same

• name
• parameter type list (but not the return type)
• cv-qualifiers
• ref-qualifiers

Then this function in the class Derived is also virtual (whether or not the keyword virtual is used in its declaration) and overrides Base::vf (whether or not the specifier override is used in its declaration).

Base::vf does not need to be accessible or visible to be overridden. (Base::vf can be declared private, or Base can be inherited using private inheritance. Any members with the same name in a base class of Derived which inherits Base do not matter for override determination, even if they would hide Base::vf during name lookup.)

class B
{
    virtual void do_f(); // private member
public:
    void f() { do_f(); } // public interface
};
 
struct D : public B
{
    void do_f() override; // overrides B::do_f
};
 
int main()
{
    D d;
    B* bp = &d;
    bp->f(); // internally calls D::do_f();
}

For every virtual function, there is the final overrider, which is executed when a virtual function call is made. A virtual member function vf of a base class Base is the final overrider unless the derived class declares or inherits (through multiple inheritance) another function that overrides vf.

struct A { virtual void f(); };     // A::f is virtual
struct B : A { void f(); };         // B::f overrides A::f in B
struct C : virtual B { void f(); }; // C::f overrides A::f in C
 
struct D : virtual B {}; // D does not introduce an overrider, B::f is final in D
 
struct E : C, D          // E does not introduce an overrider, C::f is final in E
{
    using A::f; // not a function declaration, just makes A::f visible to lookup
};
 
int main()
{
    E e;
    e.f();    // virtual call calls C::f, the final overrider in e
    e.E::f(); // non-virtual call calls A::f, which is visible in E
}

If a function has more than one final overrider, the program is ill-formed:

struct A
{
    virtual void f();
};
 
struct VB1 : virtual A
{
    void f(); // overrides A::f
};
 
struct VB2 : virtual A
{
    void f(); // overrides A::f
};
 
// struct Error : VB1, VB2
// {
//     // Error: A::f has two final overriders in Error
// };
 
struct Okay : VB1, VB2
{
    void f(); // OK: this is the final overrider for A::f
};
 
struct VB1a : virtual A {}; // does not declare an overrider
 
struct Da : VB1a, VB2
{
    // in Da, the final overrider of A::f is VB2::f
};

A function with the same name but different parameter list does not override the base function of the same name, but hides it: when unqualified name lookup examines the scope of the derived class, the lookup finds the declaration and does not examine the base class.

struct B
{
    virtual void f();
};
 
struct D : B
{
    void f(int); // D::f hides B::f (wrong parameter list)
};
 
struct D2 : D
{
    void f(); // D2::f overrides B::f (doesn't matter that it's not visible)
};
 
int main()
{
    B b;
    B& b_as_b = b;
 
    D d;
    B& d_as_b = d;
    D& d_as_d = d;
 
    D2 d2;
    B& d2_as_b = d2;
    D& d2_as_d = d2;
 
    b_as_b.f();  // calls B::f()
    d_as_b.f();  // calls B::f()
    d2_as_b.f(); // calls D2::f()
 
    d_as_d.f();  // Error: lookup in D finds only f(int)
    d2_as_d.f(); // Error: lookup in D finds only f(int)
}

struct B
{
    virtual void f(int);
};
 
struct D : B
{
    virtual void f(int) override;  // OK, D::f(int) overrides B::f(int)
    virtual void f(long) override; // Error: f(long) does not override B::f(int)
};

struct B
{
    virtual void f() const final;
};
 
struct D : B
{
    void f() const; // Error: D::f attempts to override final B::f
};

Non-member functions and static member functions cannot be virtual.

Function templates cannot be declared virtual. This applies only to functions that are themselves templates - a regular member function of a class template can be declared virtual.

struct A
{
    virtual void f() requires true; // Error: constrained virtual function
};

Default arguments for virtual functions are substituted at the compile time.

[edit] Covariant return types

If the function Derived::f overrides a function Base::f, their return types must either be the same or be covariant. Two types are covariant if they satisfy all of the following requirements:

• both types are pointers or references (lvalue or rvalue) to classes. Multi-level pointers or references are not allowed.
• the referenced/pointed-to class in the return type of Base::f() must be an unambiguous and accessible direct or indirect base class of the referenced/pointed-to class of the return type of Derived::f().
• the return type of Derived::f() must be equally or less